Modern Universities Can Trace Their Origin Ultimately Back to the:

Bookish establishment for farther education

A academy (from Latin universitas 'a whole') is an institution of higher (or 3rd) education and research which awards bookish degrees in several academic disciplines. Universities typically offer both undergraduate and postgraduate programs in different schools or faculties of learning.

The word academy is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, which roughly means "community of teachers and scholars".^[ane]

The first universities were created in Europe past Catholic Church building monks.^[2] ^[3] ^[four] ^[v] ^[6] The University of Bologna (Università di Bologna), founded in 1088, is the first academy in the sense of:

Being a high degree-application institute.
Having independence from the ecclesiastic schools, although conducted past both clergy and not-clergy.
Using the word universitas (which was coined at its foundation).
Issuing secular and non-secular degrees: grammar, rhetoric, logic, theology, canon law, notarial constabulary.^[7] ^[8] ^[9] ^[x] ^[11]

History [edit]

Definition [edit]

The original Latin word universitas refers in general to "a number of persons associated into 1 body, a society, company, customs, guild, corporation, etc".^[12] At the time of the emergence of urban town life and medieval guilds, specialized "associations of students and teachers with collective legal rights ordinarily guaranteed by charters issued by princes, prelates, or the towns in which they were located" came to be denominated by this full general term. Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined the qualifications of their members.^[xiii]

In modern usage the give-and-take has come up to hateful "An establishment of higher education offering tuition in mainly non-vocational subjects and typically having the power to confer degrees,"^[14] with the before emphasis on its corporate organization considered equally applying historically to Medieval universities.^[15]

The original Latin word referred to degree-application institutions of learning in Western and Central Europe, where this form of legal organization was prevalent and from where the institution spread around the world.^{[ citation needed ]}

Bookish freedom [edit]

An important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of academic freedom. The offset documentary evidence of this comes from early on in the life of the University of Bologna, which adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita,^[xvi] in 1158 or 1155,^[17] which guaranteed the correct of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in the interests of education. Today this is claimed as the origin of "academic freedom".^[18] This is now widely recognised internationally - on 18 September 1988, 430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum,^[19] mark the 900th anniversary of Bologna's foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, cartoon from all parts of the world.

Antecedents [edit]

Moroccan college-learning institution Al-Qarawiyin (founded in 859 A.D.) was transformed into a academy under the supervision of the ministry building of education in 1963.^[20]

Scholars occasionally call the Academy of al-Qarawiyyin (name given in 1963), founded every bit a mosque by Fatima al-Fihri in 859, a university,^[21] ^[22] ^[23] ^[24] although Jacques Verger writes that this is done out of scholarly convenience.^[25] Several scholars consider that al-Qarawiyyin was founded^[26] ^[27] and run^[20] ^[28] ^[29] ^[xxx] ^[31] as a madrasa until later World War II. They appointment the transformation of the madrasa of al-Qarawiyyin into a academy to its modern reorganization in 1963.^[32] ^[33] ^[20] In the wake of these reforms, al-Qarawiyyin was officially renamed "University of Al Quaraouiyine" two years later on.^[32]

Some scholars fence that Al-Azhar Academy, founded in 970-972 Ad and located in Cairo, Arab republic of egypt, is the oldest caste-granting university in the earth and the second oldest university in the world.^[34]

Some scholars, including George Makdisi, have argued that early on medieval universities were influenced past the madrasas in Al-Andalus, the Emirate of Sicily, and the Eye Eastward during the Crusades.^[35] ^[36] ^[37] Norman Daniel, nonetheless, views this argument equally overstated.^[38] Roy Lowe and Yoshihito Yasuhara accept recently fatigued on the well-documented influences of scholarship from the Islamic world on the universities of Western Europe to call for a reconsideration of the development of higher education, turning abroad from a business organization with local institutional structures to a broader consideration inside a global context.^[39]

Medieval Europe [edit]

The modern university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian tradition.^[40] ^[41]

European higher didactics took identify for hundreds of years in cathedral schools or monastic schools (scholae monasticae), in which monks and nuns taught classes; testify of these firsthand forerunners of the later university at many places dates back to the 6th century.^[42]

In Europe, young men proceeded to university when they had completed their written report of the trivium–the preparatory arts of grammar, rhetoric and dialectic or logic–and the quadrivium: arithmetics, geometry, music, and astronomy.

The primeval universities were adult under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and perhaps from cathedral schools. Information technology is possible, however, that the evolution of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris beingness an exception.^[43] Later they were as well founded by Kings (University of Naples Federico 2, Charles Academy in Prague, Jagiellonian Academy in Kraków) or municipal administrations (University of Cologne, Academy of Erfurt). In the early on medieval period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, ordinarily when these schools were deemed to accept go primarily sites of higher education. Many historians country that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted past The residence of a religious customs.^[44] Pope Gregory VII was critical in promoting and regulating the concept of modern university as his 1079 Papal Decree ordered the regulated establishment of cathedral schools that transformed themselves into the first European universities.^[45]

The first universities in Europe with a class of corporate/guild structure were the University of Bologna (1088), the University of Paris (c.1150, later associated with the Sorbonne), and the University of Oxford (1167).

The University of Bologna began equally a police schoolhouse teaching the ius gentium or Roman police of peoples which was in need across Europe for those defending the right of incipient nations against empire and church. Bologna's special claim to Alma Mater Studiorum ^{[ clarification needed ]} is based on its autonomy, its awarding of degrees, and other structural arrangements, making information technology the oldest continuously operating institution^[17] independent of kings, emperors or whatsoever kind of directly religious potency.^[46] ^[47]

The conventional appointment of 1088, or 1087 according to some,^[48] records when Irnerius commences teaching Emperor Justinian's 6th-century codification of Roman law, the Corpus Iuris Civilis, recently discovered at Pisa. Lay students arrived in the city from many lands entering into a contract to proceeds this knowledge, organising themselves into 'Nationes', divided betwixt that of the Cismontanes and that of the Ultramontanes. The students "had all the ability … and dominated the masters".^[49] ^[l]

All over Europe rulers and city governments began to create universities to satisfy a European thirst for knowledge, and the conventionalities that society would benefit from the scholarly expertise generated from these institutions. Princes and leaders of metropolis governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise develop with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to this understanding of the possible utility of universities too as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts.^[51]

The recovery of Aristotle's works–more than 3000 pages of information technology would eventually exist translated–fuelled a spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had already begun to sally in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these works represented one of the almost important document discoveries in Western intellectual history.^[52] Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotle'south works "a turning betoken in the history of Western thought."^[53] After Aristotle re-emerged, a customs of scholars, primarily communicating in Latin, accelerated the process and practice of attempting to reconcile the thoughts of Greek antiquity, and especially ideas related to understanding the natural world, with those of the church. The efforts of this "scholasticism" were focused on applying Aristotelian logic and thoughts about natural processes to biblical passages and attempting to prove the viability of those passages through reason. This became the primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students.

The university civilization developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the s, although the northern (primarily Deutschland, France and Corking U.k.) and southern universities (primarily Italy) did have many elements in common. Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics; while Hippocrates, Galen, and Avicenna were used for medicine. Outside of these commonalities, great differences separated n and due south, primarily in subject matter. Italian universities focused on law and medicine, while the northern universities focused on the arts and theology. There were distinct differences in the quality of instruction in these areas which were congruent with their focus, so scholars would travel north or south based on their interests and ways. There was also a departure in the types of degrees awarded at these universities. English, French and German universities unremarkably awarded bachelor's degrees, with the exception of degrees in theology, for which the doctorate was more than common. Italian universities awarded primarily doctorates. The distinction can be attributed to the intent of the degree holder later graduation – in the north the focus tended to be on acquiring teaching positions, while in the south students frequently went on to professional positions.^[54] The structure of northern universities tended to be modeled after the organization of faculty governance developed at the Academy of Paris. Southern universities tended to be patterned subsequently the student-controlled model begun at the University of Bologna.^[55] Among the southern universities, a further distinction has been noted betwixt those of northern Italy, which followed the pattern of Bologna as a "self-regulating, contained corporation of scholars" and those of southern Italia and Iberia, which were "founded past majestic and regal lease to serve the needs of government."^[56]

Early modern universities [edit]

The Academy of St Andrews, founded in 1410, is Scotland'south oldest university and one of the Britain'south best ranked universities.^[57] ^[58]

During the Early Modern period (approximately late 15th century to 1800), the universities of Europe would run across a tremendous amount of growth, productivity and innovative research. At the cease of the Middle Ages, nigh 400 years after the first European university was founded, there were 20-nine universities spread throughout Europe. In the 15th century, twenty-viii new ones were created, with another eighteen added betwixt 1500 and 1625.^[59] This pace connected until by the end of the 18th century in that location were approximately 143 universities in Europe, with the highest concentrations in the German language Empire (34), Italian countries (26), French republic (25), and Spain (23) – this was close to a 500% increase over the number of universities toward the cease of the Middle Ages. This number does non include the numerous universities that disappeared, or institutions that merged with other universities during this time.^[60] The identification of a university was not necessarily obvious during the Early Modernistic period, as the term is applied to a burgeoning number of institutions. In fact, the term "academy" was not always used to designate a higher pedagogy institution. In Mediterranean countries, the term studium generale was still often used, while "University" was mutual in Northern European countries.^[61]

The propagation of universities was not necessarily a steady progression, as the 17th century was rife with events that adversely affected academy expansion. Many wars, and particularly the Thirty Years' War, disrupted the university landscape throughout Europe at different times. War, plague, famine, regicide, and changes in religious ability and structure ofttimes adversely afflicted the societies that provided support for universities. Internal strife within the universities themselves, such as pupil brawling and absentee professors, acted to destabilize these institutions as well. Universities were too reluctant to give up older curricula, and the connected reliance on the works of Aristotle defied contemporary advancements in scientific discipline and the arts.^[62] This era was also affected by the rise of the nation-land. As universities increasingly came under state control, or formed under the auspices of the state, the faculty governance model (begun by the University of Paris) became more and more prominent. Although the older educatee-controlled universities nevertheless existed, they slowly started to move toward this structural organization. Control of universities still tended to be independent, although university leadership was increasingly appointed by the state.^[63]

Although the structural model provided by the University of Paris, where student members are controlled by faculty "masters", provided a standard for universities, the application of this model took at least three unlike forms. In that location were universities that had a organisation of faculties whose teaching addressed a very specific curriculum; this model tended to railroad train specialists. There was a collegiate or tutorial model based on the system at Academy of Oxford where teaching and organization was decentralized and knowledge was more of a generalist nature. In that location were also universities that combined these models, using the collegiate model but having a centralized organization.^[64]

Early Mod universities initially connected the curriculum and research of the Centre Ages: natural philosophy, logic, medicine, theology, mathematics, astronomy, astrology, constabulary, grammer and rhetoric. Aristotle was prevalent throughout the curriculum, while medicine besides depended on Galen and Standard arabic scholarship. The importance of humanism for changing this country-of-affairs cannot be underestimated.^[65] In one case humanist professors joined the university faculty, they began to transform the study of grammar and rhetoric through the studia humanitatis. Humanist professors focused on the ability of students to write and speak with distinction, to translate and interpret classical texts, and to live honorable lives.^[66] Other scholars within the university were afflicted by the humanist approaches to learning and their linguistic expertise in relation to ancient texts, every bit well as the ideology that advocated the ultimate importance of those texts.^[67] Professors of medicine such equally Niccolò Leoniceno, Thomas Linacre and William Cop were often trained in and taught from a humanist perspective too every bit translated of import ancient medical texts. The critical mindset imparted by humanism was imperative for changes in universities and scholarship. For instance, Andreas Vesalius was educated in a humanist mode earlier producing a translation of Galen, whose ideas he verified through his own dissections. In law, Andreas Alciatus infused the Corpus Juris with a humanist perspective, while Jacques Cujas humanist writings were paramount to his reputation as a jurist. Philipp Melanchthon cited the works of Erasmus as a highly influential guide for connecting theology back to original texts, which was important for the reform at Protestant universities.^[68] Galileo Galilei, who taught at the Universities of Pisa and Padua, and Martin Luther, who taught at the University of Wittenberg (every bit did Melanchthon), besides had humanist training. The task of the humanists was to slowly permeate the university; to increment the humanist presence in professorships and chairs, syllabi and textbooks so that published works would demonstrate the humanistic ideal of science and scholarship.^[69]

Although the initial focus of the humanist scholars in the university was the discovery, exposition and insertion of ancient texts and languages into the university, and the ideas of those texts into society generally, their influence was ultimately quite progressive. The emergence of classical texts brought new ideas and led to a more artistic university climate (equally the notable list of scholars above attests to). A focus on knowledge coming from self, from the human being, has a directly implication for new forms of scholarship and instruction, and was the foundation for what is commonly known as the humanities. This disposition toward knowledge manifested in not simply the translation and propagation of aboriginal texts, but also their adaptation and expansion. For instance, Vesalius was imperative for advocating the utilise of Galen, but he also invigorated this text with experimentation, disagreements and further research.^[70] The propagation of these texts, specially inside the universities, was greatly aided by the emergence of the printing press and the beginning of the use of the vernacular, which allowed for the press of relatively large texts at reasonable prices.^[71]

Examining the influence of humanism on scholars in medicine, mathematics, astronomy and physics may propose that humanism and universities were a stiff impetus for the scientific revolution. Although the connection betwixt humanism and the scientific discovery may very well take begun within the confines of the university, the connection has been normally perceived as having been severed by the irresolute nature of science during the Scientific Revolution. Historians such every bit Richard Southward. Westfall accept argued that the overt traditionalism of universities inhibited attempts to re-conceptualize nature and knowledge and caused an indelible tension between universities and scientists.^[72] This resistance to changes in scientific discipline may take been a meaning cistron in driving many scientists away from the university and toward private benefactors, usually in princely courts, and associations with newly forming scientific societies.^[73]

Other historians find incongruity in the proposition that the very place where the vast number of the scholars that influenced the scientific revolution received their teaching should also exist the identify that inhibits their research and the advancement of science. In fact, more than lxxx% of the European scientists betwixt 1450 and 1650 included in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography were academy trained, of which approximately 45% held university posts.^[74] It was the instance that the academic foundations remaining from the Eye Ages were stable, and they did provide for an environs that fostered considerable growth and evolution. In that location was considerable reluctance on the part of universities to relinquish the symmetry and comprehensiveness provided by the Aristotelian system, which was effective as a coherent system for understanding and interpreting the globe. However, academy professors notwithstanding utilized some autonomy, at least in the sciences, to choose epistemological foundations and methods. For instance, Melanchthon and his disciples at University of Wittenberg were instrumental for integrating Copernican mathematical constructs into astronomical debate and education.^[75] Another example was the short-lived merely fairly rapid adoption of Cartesian epistemology and methodology in European universities, and the debates surrounding that adoption, which led to more than mechanistic approaches to scientific problems as well every bit demonstrated an openness to change. There are many examples which belie the unremarkably perceived intransigence of universities.^[76] Although universities may have been slow to accept new sciences and methodologies as they emerged, when they did have new ideas information technology helped to convey legitimacy and respectability, and supported the scientific changes through providing a stable environs for instruction and material resource.^[77]

Regardless of the way the tension between universities, private scientists, and the scientific revolution itself is perceived, there was a discernible impact on the manner that university education was constructed. Aristotelian epistemology provided a coherent framework not simply for knowledge and knowledge construction, but as well for the training of scholars within the higher education setting. The creation of new scientific constructs during the scientific revolution, and the epistemological challenges that were inherent within this creation, initiated the thought of both the autonomy of scientific discipline and the hierarchy of the disciplines. Instead of entering higher education to become a "general scholar" immersed in becoming proficient in the entire curriculum, in that location emerged a type of scholar that put science showtime and viewed it equally a vocation in itself. The divergence between those focused on scientific discipline and those still entrenched in the idea of a general scholar exacerbated the epistemological tensions that were already offset to emerge.^[78]

The epistemological tensions between scientists and universities were as well heightened by the economic realities of enquiry during this time, equally individual scientists, associations and universities were vying for express resources. There was also competition from the formation of new colleges funded by private benefactors and designed to provide free education to the public, or established by local governments to provide a knowledge-hungry populace with an alternative to traditional universities.^[79] Even when universities supported new scientific endeavors, and the university provided foundational training and dominance for the research and conclusions, they could non compete with the resources available through private benefactors.^[fourscore]

Past the end of the early modern period, the structure and orientation of college teaching had changed in means that are eminently recognizable for the modern context. Aristotle was no longer a force providing the epistemological and methodological focus for universities and a more mechanistic orientation was emerging. The hierarchical identify of theological noesis had for the most part been displaced and the humanities had get a fixture, and a new openness was start to take hold in the construction and dissemination of knowledge that were to get imperative for the germination of the modern state.

Modern universities [edit]

By the 18th century, universities published their ain enquiry journals and by the 19th century, the German language and the French academy models had arisen. The German, or Humboldtian model, was conceived past Wilhelm von Humboldt and based on Friedrich Schleiermacher's liberal ideas pertaining to the importance of liberty, seminars, and laboratories in universities.^{[ citation needed ]} The French academy model involved strict discipline and control over every aspect of the academy.

Until the 19th century, religion played a pregnant office in university curriculum; withal, the function of organized religion in research universities decreased during that century. By the end of the 19th century, the German university model had spread around the world. Universities concentrated on science in the 19th and 20th centuries and became increasingly accessible to the masses. In the United states of america, the Johns Hopkins University was the showtime to prefer the (German) inquiry academy model and pioneered the adoption of that model by about American universities. When Johns Hopkins was founded in 1876, "nearly the entire faculty had studied in Germany."^[81] In U.k., the motion from Industrial Revolution to modernity saw the inflow of new civic universities with an emphasis on science and engineering, a movement initiated in 1960 by Sir Keith Murray (chairman of the University Grants Committee) and Sir Samuel Curran, with the formation of the Academy of Strathclyde.^[82] The British also established universities worldwide, and higher education became available to the masses not just in Europe.

In 1963, the Robbins Written report on universities in the United Kingdom concluded that such institutions should have 4 main "objectives essential to any properly balanced organisation: instruction in skills; the promotion of the full general powers of the mind so as to produce not mere specialists but rather cultivated men and women; to maintain research in balance with teaching, since education should non exist separated from the advancement of learning and the search for truth; and to transmit a common culture and common standards of citizenship."^[83]

In the early 21st century, concerns were raised over the increasing managerialisation and standardisation of universities worldwide. Neo-liberal direction models have in this sense been critiqued for creating "corporate universities (where) power is transferred from faculty to managers, economic justifications dominate, and the familiar 'bottom line' eclipses pedagogical or intellectual concerns".^[84] Academics' agreement of time, pedagogical pleasure, vocation, and collegiality take been cited equally possible means of alleviating such problems.^[85]

National universities [edit]

A national university is generally a university created or run by a national land only at the same time represents a country autonomic institution which functions every bit a completely independent body within of the same state. Some national universities are closely associated with national cultural, religious or political aspirations, for case the National University of Republic of ireland, which formed partly from the Cosmic University of Ireland which was created almost immediately and specifically in answer to the non-denominational universities which had been set upwardly in Ireland in 1850. In the years leading up to the Easter Rise, and in no small-scale part a result of the Gaelic Romantic revivalists, the NUI nerveless a large amount of data on the Irish language and Irish culture.^{[ citation needed ]} Reforms in Argentina were the result of the University Revolution of 1918 and its posterior reforms by incorporating values that sought for a more than equal and laic^{[ further explanation needed ]} higher education system.

Intergovernmental universities [edit]

Universities created past bilateral or multilateral treaties between states are intergovernmental. An example is the University of European Law, which offers training in European police to lawyers, judges, barristers, solicitors, in-house counsel and academics. EUCLID (Pôle Universitaire Euclide, Euclid University) is chartered equally a university and umbrella organization dedicated to sustainable development in signatory countries, and the Un University engages in efforts to resolve the pressing global problems that are of business organisation to the Un, its peoples and member states. The European University Institute, a mail-graduate university specialized in the social sciences, is officially an intergovernmental system, set up up past the member states of the European Union.

Organization [edit]

Although each institution is organized differently, well-nigh all universities have a board of trustees; a president, chancellor, or rector; at least 1 vice president, vice-chancellor, or vice-rector; and deans of various divisions. Universities are generally divided into a number of academic departments, schools or faculties. Public academy systems are ruled over by authorities-run higher education boards^{[ citation needed ]}. They review fiscal requests and upkeep proposals and then classify funds for each university in the system. They also approve new programs of instruction and abolish or brand changes in existing programs. In add-on, they programme for the further coordinated growth and evolution of the various institutions of college educational activity in the land or country. Nevertheless, many public universities in the world accept a considerable degree of financial, inquiry and pedagogical autonomy. Private universities are privately funded and generally have broader independence from state policies. However, they may have less independence from business concern corporations depending on the source of their finances.

Around the earth [edit]

The funding and arrangement of universities varies widely between dissimilar countries effectually the world. In some countries universities are predominantly funded past the state, while in others funding may come from donors or from fees which students attending the academy must pay. In some countries the vast majority of students attend academy in their local boondocks, while in other countries universities concenter students from all over the world, and may provide university adaptation for their students.^[86]

Classification [edit]

The definition of a university varies widely, even within some countries. Where at that place is clarification, it is usually set by a authorities agency. For example:

In Australia, the Tertiary Educational activity Quality and Standards Bureau (TEQSA) is Commonwealth of australia'due south independent national regulator of the college education sector. Students rights within university are also protected by the Teaching Services for Overseas Students Human action (ESOS).

In the The states there is no nationally standardized definition for the term academy, although the term has traditionally been used to designate research institutions and was once reserved for doctorate-granting research institutions. Some states, such every bit Massachusetts, volition only grant a schoolhouse "university status" if it grants at least two doctoral degrees.^[87]

In the United Kingdom, the Privy Quango is responsible for approving the utilize of the word academy in the name of an establishment, under the terms of the Farther and Higher Education Act 1992.^[88]

In India, a new designation accounted universities has been created for institutions of higher educational activity that are not universities, but piece of work at a very high standard in a specific area of study ("An Institution of Higher Instruction, other than universities, working at a very high standard in specific area of study, can be declared past the Key Government on the advice of the University Grants Committee as an Institution 'Deemed-to-be-university'"). Institutions that are 'deemed-to-be-university' enjoy the academic status and the privileges of a academy.^[89] Through this provision many schools that are commercial in nature and take been established only to exploit the need for higher education have sprung up.^[90]

In Canada, college generally refers to a two-twelvemonth, non-degree-granting institution, while university connotes a four-year, caste-granting institution. Universities may exist sub-classified (as in the Macleans rankings) into large research universities with many PhD-granting programs and medical schools (for case, McGill University); "comprehensive" universities that have some PhDs only are not geared toward research (such every bit Waterloo); and smaller, primarily undergraduate universities (such as St. Francis Xavier).

In Germany, universities are institutions of college teaching which take the ability to confer available, primary and PhD degrees. They are explicitly recognised as such by law and cannot be founded without regime approval. The term Universität (i.e. the High german term for university) is protected by law and any utilise without official approving is a criminal criminal offence. About of them are public institutions, though a few individual universities be. Such universities are always enquiry universities. Autonomously from these universities, Germany has other institutions of higher teaching (Hochschule, Fachhochschule). Fachhochschule means a higher education institution which is similar to the quondam polytechnics in the British education organization, the English term used for these German institutions is unremarkably 'academy of applied sciences'. They can confer primary'southward degrees merely no PhDs. They are similar to the model of teaching universities with less research and the inquiry undertaken being highly practical. Hochschule tin can refer to various kinds of institutions, frequently specialised in a sure field (e.g. music, fine arts, business). They might or might not have the power to accolade PhD degrees, depending on the respective government legislation. If they award PhD degrees, their rank is considered equivalent to that of universities proper (Universität), if not, their rank is equivalent to universities of applied sciences.

Colloquial usage [edit]

Colloquially, the term academy may be used to describe a phase in one's life: "When I was at university..." (in the United States and Republic of ireland, college is oftentimes used instead: "When I was in college..."). In Ireland, Commonwealth of australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United Kingdom, Nigeria, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain and the High german-speaking countries, university is frequently contracted to uni. In Republic of ghana, New Zealand, People's republic of bangladesh and in Southward Africa it is sometimes called "varsity" (although this has become uncommon in New Zealand in recent years). "Varsity" was also common usage in the United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland in the 19th century.^{[ citation needed ]}

Cost [edit]

In many countries, students are required to pay tuition fees. Many students look to become 'student grants' to encompass the cost of academy. In 2016, the average outstanding student loan balance per borrower in the U.s.a. was Us$30,000.^[91] In many U.S. states, costs are anticipated to rise for students as a result of decreased country funding given to public universities.^[92] Many universities in the United States offer students the opportunity to apply for financial scholarships to help pay for tuition based on academic achievement.

There are several major exceptions on tuition fees. In many European countries, it is possible to study without tuition fees. Public universities in Nordic countries were entirely without tuition fees until around 2005. Denmark, Sweden and Republic of finland then moved to put in identify tuition fees for foreign students. Citizens of Eu and EEA member states and citizens from Switzerland remain exempted from tuition fees, and the amounts of public grants granted to promising foreign students were increased to first some of the touch on.^[93] The situation in Germany is like; public universities usually exercise not charge tuition fees apart from a small administrative fee. For degrees of a postgraduate professional level sometimes tuition fees are levied. Private universities, however, almost e'er accuse tuition fees.

Encounter likewise [edit]

Alternative university
Alumni
Ancient higher-learning institutions
Catholic university
College and university rankings
Corporate university
International university
Country-grant university
Liberal arts college
List of academic disciplines
Lists of universities and colleges
Pontifical academy
Research university
School and university in literature
Scientific discipline tourism
UnCollege
University student retention
University system
Urban university

References [edit]

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^ A. Lamport, Marker (2015). Encyclopedia of Christian Education. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 484. ISBN9780810884939. All the peachy European universities-Oxford, to Paris, to Cologne, to Prague, to Bologna—were established with shut ties to the Church.
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^ Marcia L. Colish, Medieval Foundations of the Western Intellectual Tradition, 400-1400, (New Haven: Yale Univ. Pr., 1997), p. 267.
^ "university, northward.", OED Online (tertiary ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, archived from the original on thirty April 2021, retrieved 27 August 2013
^ "academy, n.", OED Online (3rd ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, archived from the original on 30 April 2021, retrieved 27 August 2013, ...In the Middle Ages: a torso of teachers and students engaged in giving and receiving instruction in the college branches of study … and regarded as a scholastic guild or corporation. Compare "University", Oxford English language Dictionary (2nd ed.), Oxford: Oxford Academy Press, 1989, The whole body of teachers and scholars engaged, at a particular place, in giving and receiving instruction in the higher branches of learning; such persons associated together as a social club or corporate torso, with definite organization and acknowledged powers and privileges (esp. that of conferring degrees), and forming an establishment for the promotion of education in the higher or more than important branches of learning….
^ Malagola, C. (1888), Statuti delle Università eastward dei Collegi dello Studio Bolognese. Bologna: Zanichelli.
^ ^a ^b Rüegg, Due west. (2003). "Chapter 1: Themes". In De Ridder-Symoens, H. (ed.). A History of the University in Europe. Vol. one. Cambridge University Press. pp. 4–34. ISBN0-521-54113-1.
^ Watson, P. (2005), Ideas. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, page 373
^ "Magna Charta delle Università Europee". .unibo.it. Archived from the original on 15 November 2010. Retrieved 28 May 2010.
^ ^a ^b ^c Belhachmi, Zakia: "Gender, Education, and Feminist Cognition in al-Maghrib (North Africa) – 1950–70", Journal of Middle Eastern and North African Intellectual and Cultural Studies, Vol. 2–3, 2003, pp. 55–82 (65):

The Adjustments of Original Institutions of the Higher Learning: the Madrasah. Significantly, the institutional adjustments of the madrasahs affected both the construction and the content of these institutions. In terms of structure, the adjustments were twofold: the reorganization of the available original madaris and the creation of new institutions. This resulted in two different types of Islamic teaching institutions in al-Maghrib. The first blazon was derived from the fusion of erstwhile madaris with new universities. For example, Morocco transformed Al-Qarawiyin (859 A.D.) into a university nether the supervision of the ministry of educational activity in 1963.
^ Verger, Jacques: "Patterns", in: Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de (ed.): A History of the University in Europe. Vol. I: Universities in the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0-521-54113-8, pp. 35–76 (35)
^ Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Lexicon of Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 328. ISBN978-0-1951-2559-7.
^ Joseph, South, and Najmabadi, A. Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures: Economics, education, mobility, and space. Brill, 2003, p. 314.
^ Swartley, Keith. Encountering the World of Islam. Accurate, 2005, p. 74.
^ A History of the University in Europe. Vol. I: Universities in the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press, 2003, 35
^ Petersen, Andrew: Dictionary of Islamic Architecture, Routledge, 1996, ISBN 978-0-415-06084-4, p. 87 (entry "Fez"):

The Quaraouiyine Mosque, founded in 859, is the most famous mosque of Morocco and attracted continuous investment by Muslim rulers.
^ Lulat, Y. G.-M.: A History Of African College Education From Artifact To The Present: A Critical Synthesis Studies in Higher Teaching, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2005, ISBN 978-0-313-32061-iii, p. lxx:

Every bit for the nature of its curriculum, it was typical of other major madrasahs such as al-Azhar and Al Quaraouiyine, though many of the texts used at the institution came from Muslim Espana...Al Quaraouiyine began its life as a modest mosque constructed in 859 C.Eastward. by means of an endowment bequeathed by a wealthy woman of much piety, Fatima bint Muhammed al-Fahri.
^ Shillington, Kevin: Encyclopedia of African History, Vol. ii, Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005, ISBN 978-one-57958-245-6, p. 1025:

Higher education has always been an integral role of Kingdom of morocco, going back to the ninth century when the Karaouine Mosque was established. The madrasa, known today as Al Qayrawaniyan Academy, became part of the state university system in 1947.

They consider institutions like al-Qarawiyyin to be college education colleges of Islamic law where other subjects were only of secondary importance.
^ Pedersen, J.; Rahman, Munibur; Hillenbrand, R.: "Madrasa", in Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edition, Brill, 2010:

Madrasa, in modern usage, the proper noun of an institution of learning where the Islamic sciences are taught, i.due east. a higher for higher studies, every bit opposed to an unproblematic schoolhouse of traditional type (kuttab); in medieval usage, substantially a college of police in which the other Islamic sciences, including literary and philosophical ones, were ancillary subjects only.
^ Meri, Josef West. (ed.): Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, Vol. ane, A–1000, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-96691-vii, p. 457 (entry "madrasa"):

A madrasa is a college of Islamic police force. The madrasa was an educational institution in which Islamic police force (fiqh) was taught co-ordinate to one or more than Sunni rites: Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanafi, or Hanbali. Information technology was supported past an endowment or charitable trust (waqf) that provided for at least one chair for one professor of police force, income for other kinesthesia or staff, scholarships for students, and funds for the maintenance of the edifice. Madrasas contained lodgings for the professor and some of his students. Subjects other than law were frequently taught in madrasas, and even Sufi seances were held in them, but there could be no madrasa without law equally technically the major field of study.
^ Makdisi, George: "Madrasa and University in the Middle Ages", Studia Islamica, No. 32 (1970), pp. 255–264 (255f.):

In studying an institution which is foreign and remote in betoken of time, as is the case of the medieval madrasa, one runs the double risk of attributing to it characteristics borrowed from one'south own institutions and i'due south own times. Thus gratuitous transfers may be made from one culture to the other, and the time cistron may be ignored or dismissed as being without significance. 1 cannot therefore be too careful in attempting a comparative report of these ii institutions: the madrasa and the university. But in spite of the pitfalls inherent in such a study, albeit sketchy, the results which may be obtained are well worth the risks involved. In whatever case, one cannot avoid making comparisons when certain unwarranted statements have already been made and seem to be currently accustomed without question. The about unwarranted of these statements is the ane which makes of the "madrasa" a "university".
^ ^a ^b Lulat, Y. Yard.-Thousand.: A History Of African Higher Education From Antiquity To The Present: A Critical Synthesis, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2005, ISBN 978-0-313-32061-3, pp. 154–157
^ Park, Thomas Thou.; Boum, Aomar: Historical Lexicon of Morocco, 2nd ed., Scarecrow Printing, 2006, ISBN 978-0-8108-5341-6, p. 348

al-qarawiyin is the oldest academy in Morocco. It was founded as a mosque in Fès in the middle of the 9th century. Information technology has been a destination for students and scholars of Islamic sciences and Arabic studies throughout the history of Morocco. There were also other religious schools like the madras of ibn yusuf and other schools in the sus. This system of bones education called al-ta'lim al-aSil was funded by the sultans of Morocco and many famous traditional families. Subsequently independence, al-qarawiyin maintained its reputation, simply it seemed important to transform it into a academy that would ready graduates for a modernistic country while maintaining an emphasis on Islamic studies. Hence, al-qarawiyin academy was founded in February 1963 and, while the dean's residence was kept in Fès, the new university initially had four colleges located in major regions of the country known for their religious influences and madrasas. These colleges were kuliyat al-shari'southward in Fès, kuliyat uSul al-din in Tétouan, kuliyat al-lugha al-'arabiya in Marrakech (all founded in 1963), and kuliyat al-shari'a in Ait Melloul near Agadir, which was founded in 1979.
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External links [edit]

Wikiversity has learning resources about Academy

"Universities". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
University at Curlie

fraireaginsons1946.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University